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External Websites
- The University of Hawaiʻi Pressbooks - Food Preservation
- WebMd - How to Freeze Food
- Medicine LibreTexts - Food Preservation
- Academia - Food Preservation An Introduction
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension - Food website - Food Preservation
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - The impact of food preservation on food waste
- University of Minnesota Extension - Preserving and preparing food safely
- Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations - General procedures for fruit and vegetable preservation
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External Websites
- The University of Hawaiʻi Pressbooks - Food Preservation
- WebMd - How to Freeze Food
- Medicine LibreTexts - Food Preservation
- Academia - Food Preservation An Introduction
- University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension - Food website - Food Preservation
- National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - The impact of food preservation on food waste
- University of Minnesota Extension - Preserving and preparing food safely
- Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations - General procedures for fruit and vegetable preservation
Written by
R. Paul Singh,
Norman Wilfred Desrosier•All
Fact-checked by
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Last Updated: •Article History
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- Key People:
- Nicolas Appert
- Related Topics:
- smoking
- dehydration
- freezing
- radiation sterilization
- chilling
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food preservation, any of a number of methods by which food is kept from spoilage after harvest or slaughter. Such practices date to prehistoric times. Among the oldest methods of preservation are drying, refrigeration, and fermentation. Modern methods include canning, pasteurization, freezing, irradiation, and the addition of chemicals. Advances in packaging materials have played an important role in modern food preservation.
Spoilage mechanisms
Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. These changes may be caused by various factors, including contamination by microorganisms, infestation by insects, or degradation by endogenous enzymes (those present naturally in the food). In addition, physical and chemical changes, such as the tearing of plant or animal tissues or the oxidation of certain constituents of food, may promote food spoilage. Foods obtained from plant or animal sources begin to spoil soon after harvest or slaughter. The enzymes contained in the cells of plant and animal tissues may be released as a result of any mechanical damage inflicted during postharvest handling. These enzymes begin to break down the cellular material. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the degradation of food quality, such as the development of off-flavours, the deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients. The typical microorganisms that cause food spoilage are bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus), yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces), and molds (e.g., Rhizopus).
Microbial contamination
Bacteria and fungi (yeasts and molds) are the principal types of microorganisms that cause food spoilage and food-borne illnesses. Foods may be contaminated by microorganisms at any time during harvest, storage, processing, distribution, handling, or preparation. The primary sources of microbial contamination are soil, air, animal feed, animal hides and intestines, plant surfaces, sewage, and food processing machinery or utensils.
Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular organisms that have a simple internal structure compared with the cells of other organisms. The increase in the number of bacteria in a population is commonly referred to as bacterial growth by microbiologists. This growth is the result of the division of one bacterial cell into two identical bacterial cells, a process called binary fission. Under optimal growth conditions, a bacterial cell may divide approximately every 20 minutes. Thus, a single cell can produce almost 70 billion cells in 12 hours. The factors that influence the growth of bacteria include nutrient availability, moisture, pH, oxygen levels, and the presence or absence of inhibiting substances (e.g., antibiotics).
Britannica QuizA Few Facts About Food Processing QuizThe nutritional requirements of most bacteria are chemical elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and iron. The bacteria obtain these elements by utilizing gases in the atmosphere and by metabolizing certain food constituents such as carbohydrates and proteins.
Temperature and pH play a significant role in controlling the growth rates of bacteria. Bacteria may be classified into three groups based on their temperature requirement for optimal growth: thermophiles (55–75 °C, or 130–170 °F), mesophiles (20–45 °C, or 70–115 °F), or psychrotrophs (10–20 °C, or 50–70 °F). In addition, most bacteria grow best in a neutral environment (pH equal to 7).
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Bacteria also require a certain amount of available water for their growth. The availability of water is expressed as water activity and is defined by the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the food to the vapour pressure of pure water at a specific temperature. Therefore, the water activity of any food product is always a value between 0 and 1, with 0 representing an absence of water and 1 representing pure water. Most bacteria do not grow in foods with a water activity below 0.91, although some halophilic bacteria (those able to tolerate high salt concentrations) can grow in foods with a water activity lower than 0.75. Growth may be controlled by lowering the water activity—either by adding solutes such as sugar, glycerol, and salt or by removing water through dehydration.
The oxygen requirements for optimal growth vary considerably for different bacteria. Some bacteria require the presence of free oxygen for growth and are called obligate aerobes, whereas other bacteria are poisoned by the presence of oxygen and are called obligate anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes are bacteria that can grow in both the presence or absence of oxygen. In addition to oxygen concentration, the oxygen reduction potential of the growth medium influences bacterial growth. The oxygen reduction potential is a relative measure of the oxidizing or reducing capacity of the growth medium.
When bacteria contaminate a food substrate, it takes some time before they start growing. This lag phase is the period when the bacteria are adjusting to the environment. Following the lag phase is the log phase, in which population grows in a logarithmic fashion. As the population grows, the bacteria consume available nutrients and produce waste products. When the nutrient supply is depleted, the growth rate enters a stationary phase in which the number of viable bacteria cells remains the same. During the stationary phase, the rate of bacterial cell growth is equal to the rate of bacterial cell death. When the rate of cell death becomes greater than the rate of cell growth, the population enters the decline phase.
A bacterial population is expressed either per gram or per square centimetre of surface area. Rarely does the total bacterial population exceed 1010 cells per gram. A population of less than 106 cells per gram does not cause any noticeable spoilage except in raw milk. Populations of between 106 and 107 cells per gram cause spoilage in some foods; for example, they can generate off-odours in vacuum-packaged meats. Populations of between 107 and 108 cells per gram produce off-odours in meats and some vegetables. At levels above 5 × 107 cells per gram, most foods exhibit some form of spoilage.
When the conditions for bacterial cell growth are unfavourable (e.g., low or high temperatures or low moisture content), several species of bacteria can produce resistant cells called endospores. Endospores are highly resistant to heat, chemicals, desiccation (drying out), and ultraviolet light. The endospores may remain dormant for long periods of time. When conditions become favourable for growth (e.g., thawing of meats), the endospores germinate and produce viable cells that can begin exponential growth.
