The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) landed 12 people on the Moon between 1969 and 1972 as a part of the Apollo project. Despite several subsequent policy initiatives by American presidents, however, no humans have landed on the Moon in the decades since.
The Apollo program was a costly endeavor for the United States. While the cost of the program varies between historical sources, most agree that it cost at least $20 billion in 1973 dollars (the equivalent of about $116 billion in 2019). At its peak in the mid-1960s, NASA consumed about 4 percent of annual federal spending, compared with roughly 0.5 percent in recent years.
$20 billion
Cost of Apollo program in 1973
$116 billion
Equivalent cost in 2019 dollars
NASA initially planned to send human missions to the Moon through Apollo 20 and then adapt its Moon mission technology for other exploration through the Apollo Applications Program (AAP). Congressional cutbacks in NASA allocations, however, accelerated the end of the Moon program to Apollo 17, in 1972. Most AAP programs were shelved, with the exception of the space station Skylab.
There are many reasons why Congress reduced funding to NASA. The initial impetus to go to the Moon came from the space race, a competition between the Soviet Union and the United States to show technological and military superiority to other nations. Later in the 1960s, however, the mood of competition cooled to détente, removing the strategic urgency of investing in NASA. Other public priorities were also coming to the fore, high among them the expensive Vietnam War that required a large share of federal funds. Public interest in space also faded after the first human Moon landing, Apollo 11, on July 20, 1969.
Space historians Roger D. Launius and Howard E. McCurdy further argue, in their 1997 book Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership, that Apollo arose because of a unique circ*mstance. Specifically, U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy pursued the space program and Moon landings as one of the chief policies of the United States, due to concern about Soviet military capabilities. After détente, NASA and its programs moved to ancillary policy and have remained there ever since.
In line with congressional desires, NASA’s priorities changed in the coming decades and its more limited human spaceflight money went to projects other than Moon exploration. The next major initiative after Apollo was the partially reusable space shuttle, whose five space vehicles flew 135 missions between 1981 and 2011. NASA also worked on various space station concepts that eventually culminated in it contributing to the International Space Station (ISS), whose first pieces were launched in 1998. The ISS was billed partly as a science laboratory and partly as an international policy platform—especially with Russia, which was then a new nation just establishing itself after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Three presidents have proposed new Moon initiatives over the decades, but most ideas were abandoned due to funding and waning congressional will. These were George H.W. Bush’s Space Exploration Initiative to land humans by the turn of the century, and George W. Bush’s Vision for Space Exploration advocating for Moon missions by 2020. Both initiatives were terminated shortly after each president finished his term. The current administration of Donald Trump has two major Moon initiatives planned: the Gateway lunar space station and Project Artemis, aiming for human landings by the year 2024.
In June 2019 NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine told reporters that the new Moon landings under Project Artemis could cost NASA between $20 billion and $30 billion in current-day dollars. This would be much cheaper than the cost of Apollo, pegged in excess of $115 billion.
$30 billion
Project Artemis could cost between $20 billion and $30 billion.
Besides the United States and the Soviet Union, no nation in the 1960s had space programs sufficiently advanced to consider human Moon landings. In recent years, however, China, India, Japan, Russia, and the countries within the European Space Agency have all publicly speculated on future Moon landings. NASA is soliciting its ISS partners for Artemis and Gateway collaborations. As of this writing, Canada is the only partner to commit; it has signed on to provide robotics to the Gateway.
Any country or agency that does choose to land people on the Moon will need to accept a certain amount of risk and budgetary commitment. Human Moon landings require more resources than robotic landings, since humans require water, oxygen, food, and other amenities to remain alive. That said, several nations—including private companies from those nations—are working on robotic Moon initiatives that could support future human missions.
Written by Elizabeth Howell
Elizabeth Howell has reported and written on space for such outlets as Space.com and Forbes. She is president of the Science Writers and Communicators of Canada.
