1. James Woodburn, “Egalitarian societies,” Man 17 (1982): 431–451.
2. Richard B. Lee, The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979); Richard B. Lee and Irving DeVore, eds. Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and Their Neighbors (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976); George Silberbauer, Hunter and Habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); and Jiro Tanaka, The San, Hunter-Gatherers of the Kalahari: A Study in Ecological Anthropology, trans. David W. Hughes (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1980 [1971]).
3. Edwin Wilmsen and James Denbow, “Paradigmatic History of San-Speaking Peoples and Current Attempts at Revision,” Current Anthropology 31.5 (1990): 489–524.
4. James Denbow, “Prehistoric Herders and Foragers of the Kalahari: The Evidence for 1500 Years of Interaction,” in Past and Present in Hunter-Gatherer studies, ed. C. Schrire (Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1984), 175–193; Carmel Schrire, Past and present in hunter-gatherer studies (Orlando, FL.: Academic Press, 1984); Edwin Wilmsen, Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); and Lawrence Robbins et al., “Recent Archaeological and Paleontological Research at Toteng, Botswana: Early Domesticated Livestock in the Kalahari,” Journal of African Archaeology 6.1 (2008): 131–149.
5. Schrire, Past and Present; Jacqueline Solway and Richard Lee, “Foragers, Genuine or Spurious? Situating the Kalahari San in History,” Current Anthropology 31 (1990): 109–146; James Denbow and Edwin Wilmsen, “The Advent and Course of Pastoralism in the Kalahari,” Science 234 (1986): 1509–1515; Wilmsen and Denbow, Paradigmatic History; Wilmsen, Land; and Justin Pargeter et al., “Primordialism and the ‘Pleistocene San’ of Southern Africa,” Antiquity 90.352 (2016): 1072–1079.
6. Lee and Devore, Kalahari; Lee, !Kung; Solway and Lee, Foragers.
7. Denbow and Wilmsen, Advent; Wilmsen, Land; Wilmsen and Denbow, Paradigmatic History.
8. James Denbow, The Archaeology and Ethnography of Central Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); James Denbow, Carla Klehm, and Laure Dussubieux, “The Glass Beads of Kaitshàa and Early Indian Ocean Trade into the Far Interior of Southern Africa,” Antiquity 89 (2015): 361–377; Christopher Ehret, “The Early Livestock-Raisers of Southern Africa,” Southern African Humanities 20 (2008): 7–35; Thomas Güldemann, “A Linguist’s View: Khoe-Kwadi Speakers as the Earliest Food-Producers of Southern Africa,” Southern African Humanities 20 (2008): 93–132; Joseph Pickrell et al., “The Genetic Prehistory of Southern Africa,” Nature Communications 6 (2016); and Enrico Macholdt et al., “Tracing Pastoralist Migrations to Southern Africa with Lactase Persistence Alleles,” Current Biology 24.8 (2014): 875–879.
9. David Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (New York: Harper, 1858), 73.
10. David Livingstone, Livingstone’s Africa: Perilous Adventures and Extensive Discoveries in the Interior of Africa (Philadelphia and Boston: Hubbard, 1872), 88.
11. Mabunga Gadibola, “Serfdom (Bolata) in the Nata Area (1929–1960)” (BA thesis, History Department, University of Botswana, 1993); E. S. B. Taggart, Report on the Conditions Existing among Masarwa in the Bamangwato Reserve of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and Certain Other Matters Appertaining to the Natives Living Therein (Pretoria: South Africa Government Press, 1933); Robert Hitchcock, Kalahari Cattle Posts: A Regional Study of Hunter-Gatherers, Pastoralists and Agriculturalists in the Western Sandveld Region, Central District, Botswana (Gaborone, Botswana: Ministry of Local Government and Lands, 1978); and Silberbauer, Hunter and Habitat.
12. Andy Chebanne, “Shifting Identities in Eastern Khoe: Ethnic and Language Endangerment,” Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies 16.2 (2002): 147–157.
13. Alan Barnard, Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A Comparative Ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 131.
14. Sibel Kusimba, “What Is a Hunter-Gatherer? Variation in the Archaeological Record of Eastern and Southern Africa,” Journal of Archaeological Research 13.4 (2005): 337–366; Aaron Mazel, “Changing Fortunes: 150 Years of San Hunter-Gatherer History in the Natal Drakensberg, South Africa,” Antiquity 65 (1992): 758–767; Peter Mitchell, “Anyone for Hxaro? Thoughts on the History and Practice of Exchange in Southern African Later Stone Age Archaeology,” in Researching Africa’s Past: New Perspectives from British Archaeology, eds. P. Mitchell, A. Haour, and J. Hobart (Oxford: School of Archaeology, 2003), 35–43; and Pargeter, Primordialism.
15. Simon Hall and Benjamin Smith, “Empowering Places: Rock Shelters and Ritual Control in Farmer-Forager Interactions in the Northern Province,” South African Archaeological Bulletin, Goodwin Series 8 (2000): 30–46.
16. David S. Thomas and Paul Shaw, The Kalahari Environment (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
17. Daniel McGahey, “Maintaining Opportunism and Mobility in Drylands: The Impact of Veterinary Cordon Fences in Botswana” (PhD diss., School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, 2008).
18. Alec Campbell, “Traditional Utilization of the Okavango Delta,” in Symposium on the Okavango Delta, eds. D. Nteta and J. Hermans (Gaborone: Botswana Society, 1976); and Barnard, Hunters and Herders, 123.
19. S. Dornan, Pygmies & Bushmen of the Kalahari; An Account of the Hunting Tribes Inhabiting the Great Arid Plateau of the Kalahari Desert, Their Precarious Manner of Living, Their Habits, Customs & Beliefs, with Some Reference to Bushman Art, Both Early & of Recent Date, & to the Neighbouring African Tribes (London: Seeley, Service, 1925), 106–109.
20. James Denbow and Phenyo Thebe, Culture and Customs of Botswana (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2006); and McGahey, Maintaining Opportunism.
21. David Nash et al., “Provenancing of Silcrete Raw Materials Indicates Long-Distance Transport to Tsodilo Hills, Botswana, during the Middle Stone Age,” Journal of Human Evolution 64 (2013): 280–288.
22. Phenyo Thebe, “Paradigms in Stone: Lithic Technology at Bosutswe and Matlapaneng” (MA thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, 2004).
23. Lawrence Robbins et al., “The Advent of Herding in Southern Africa: Early AMS Dates on Domestic Livestock from the Kalahari Desert,” Current Anthropology 46.4 (2005): 671–677.
24. Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, “Animal Disease Challenges to the Emergence of Pastoralism in Sub-Saharan Africa,” African Archaeological Review 18 (2000): 95–139.
25. Denbow, Glass Beads.
26. Güldemann, “A Linguist’s View”; Thomas Güldemann and Edward Elderkin, “On External Genealogical Relationships of the Khoe Family,” in Khoisan Languages and Linguistics: Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium, January 4–8, 2003, eds. M. Brenzinger and C. König (Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 2010), 15–52; and Ehret, Early Livestock.
27. Pickrell, Genetic Prehistory.
28. Coelho et al., “On the Edge of Bantu Expansions: mtDNA, Y-Chromosome and Lactase Persistence: Genetic Variation in Southwestern Angola,” BMC Evolutionary Biology 9 (2009): 80; and Barbieri et al., “Unraveling the Complex Maternal History of Southern African Khoisan Populations,” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153 (2014): 435–448.
29. Macholdt et al., “Tracing Pastoralist Migrations.”
30. Henn et al., “Y-Chromosomal Evidence of a Pastoralist Migration.”
31. Barnard, Hunters and Herders, 122.
32. Pickrell, Genetic Prehistory, 3.
33. Brigitte Packendorf, “Eastern Botswana: Shua and Tshwa,” paper presented at the conference “Speaking (of) Khoisan,” Leipzig, 2015.
34. Rainer Vossen, “What Click Sounds Got to Do in Bantu: Reconstructing the History of Language Contacts in Southern Africa,” in Human Contact through Language and Linguistics, eds. B. Smieja and M. Tasch (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1997), 353–366; Robbins et al., Advent of Herding; Robbins et al., Recent Archaeological; Eileen Kose and J. Richter, “The Prehistory of the Kavango People,” Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 18 (2007): 103–129; Eileen Kose, “New Light on Ironworking Groups along the Middle Kavango in Northern Namibia,” South African Archaeological Bulletin 64.190 (2009): 130–147; Andrew Smith, “Pastoral Origins at the Cape, South Africa: Influences and Arguments,” Southern African Humanities 20 (2008): 49–60; D. Pleurdeau et al., “‘Of Sheep and Men’: Earliest Direct Evidence of Caprine Domestication in Southern Africa at Leopard Cave (Erongo, Namibia),” PLOS One 7.7 (2012): 10; and Denbow, Archaeology and Ethnography.
35. Karim Sadr, “Invisible Herders? The Archaeology of Khoekhoe Pastoralists,” Southern African Humanities 20 (2008): 179–203.
36. Andrew Smith, “The Concepts of ‘Neolithic’ and ‘Neolithisation’ for Africa,” Before Farming 1.2 (2005): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.3828/bfarm.2005.1.2
37. Thomas Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles: Power and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe (Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1996); Thomas Huffman, “The Stylistic Origin of Bambata and the Spread of Mixed Farming in Southern Africa,” Southern African Humanities 17 (2005): 57–79; and James Denbow et al., “Excavations at Bosutswe, Botswana: Cultural Chronology, Paleo-ecology and Economy,” Journal of Archaeological Science 35.2 (2008): 459–480.
38. James Denbow and Alec Campbell, “The Early Stages of Food Production in Southern Africa and Some Potential Linguistic Correlations,” Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 7.1 (1986): 83–103; James Denbow, “After the Flood: A Preliminary Account of Recent Geological, Archaeological and Linguistic Investigations in the Okavango Region of Northern Botswana,” in Contemporary Studies on Khoisan: In Honour of Oswin Keohler on the Occasion of His 75th Birthday, eds. R. Vossen and K. Keuthmann, 181–214 (Hamburg: H. Buske, 1986), 181–214; Lawrence Robbins et al., “Late Quaternary Archaeological and Palaeo-environmental Data from Sediments at Rhino Cave, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana,” Southern African Field Archaeology 9 (2000): 17–31; Lawrence Robbins et al., “Archaeology, Palaeoenvironment, and Chronology of the Tsodilo Hills White Paintings Rock Shelter, Northwest Kalahari Desert, Botswana,” Journal of Archaeological Science 27 (2000): 1085–1113; Gill Turner, “Early Iron Age Herders in Northwestern Botswana: The Faunal Evidence,” Botswana Notes and Records 19 (1987): 7–23; Gill Turner, “Hunters and Herders of the Okavango Delta, Northern Botswana,” Botswana Notes and Records 19 (1987): 25–40; and Wynand van Zyl et al., “The Archaeofauna from Xaro on the Okavango Delta in Northern Botswana,” Annals of the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History 3 (2013): 49–58.
39. Denbow, Archaeology and Ethnography.
40. James Denbow, “Excavations at Divuyu, Tsodilo Hills,” Botswana Notes and Records 43 (2011): 76–94.
41. Morongwa Mosotwane, “Foragers among Farmers in the Early Iron Age of Botswana? Dietary Evidence from Stable Isotopes” (PhD diss., Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 2010); Denbow, “Excavations at Divuyu.”
42. Turner, Early Iron Age.
43. Robbins, White Paintings.
44. Duncan Miller, The Tsodilo Jewellery: Metal Work from Northern Botswana (Rondebosch: University of Cape Town Press, 1976); and Lawrence Robbins et al., “Intensive Mining of Specular Hematite in the Kalahari ca. AD 800–1000,” Current Anthropology 39 (1998): 144–150.
45. Denbow, “Excavations at Divuyu.”
46. Edwin Wilmsen and James Denbow, “Early Villages at Tsodilo: The Introduction of Livestock, Crops, and Metalworking,” in Tsodilo, Mountain of the Gods, eds. L. Robbins, A. Campbell, and M. Taylor (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press), 72–81.
47. Morongwa Mosothwane, “Dietary Stable Carbon Isotope Signatures of the Early Iron Age Inhabitants of Ngamiland,” Botswana Notes and Records 43 (2011): 115–129.
48. Wilmsen and Denbow, “Early Villages at Tsodilo”; Denbow, “Excavations at Divuyu”; Robbins et al., Late Quaternary; and Robbins et al., Recent Archaeological.
49. James Denbow field notes from 1984–1985 in possession of the author; the seeds were examined by Dr. J. M. J. de Wet, Department of Agronomy, University of Illinois, Urbana, with the species identified in an unpublished letter to Denbow in 1986.
50. Turner, Hunters and Herders.
51. Wilmsen and Denbow, “Early Villages”;Edwin Wilmsen et al., “The Social Geography of Pottery in Botswana as Reconstructed by Optical Petrography,” Journal of African Archaeology 7.1 (2009): 3–39; Joseph Vogel, “Kamangoza: An Introduction to the Iron Age Cultures of the Victoria Falls Region,” Zambia Museum Papers 2 (1971); Joseph Vogel, “The Early Iron Age Site at Sioma Mission, Western Zambia,” Zambia Museums Journal 4 (1972): 153–169; Joseph Vogel and J. M. Chuubi, A Guide to the Livingstone Museum (Livingstone: National Museums Board Livingstone Museum, 1975); and Brian Fagan, “The Iron Age Sequence in the Southern Province of Zambia,” in Papers in African Prehistory, eds. J. D. Fage and R. A. Oliver (Cambridge: University Printing House, 1974), 208.
52. Thebe, Paradigms.
53. Van Zyl, Archaeofauna.
54. Mosothwane, Dietary Stable Carbon, 123.
55. Denbow, 1982 fieldnotes.
56. Thomas Tlou, History of Ngamiland: 1750–1906 (Johannesburg: Macmillan, 1985); Denbow and Thebe, Culture and Customs; Denbow, Archaeology and Ethnography; John Kinahan, “The Acquisition of Ceramics by Hunter-Gatherers on the Middle Zambezi in the First and Second Millennium AD,” Journal of African Archaeology 11.2 (2013): 197–209.
57. Koen Bostoen and B. Sands, “Clicks in South-Western Bantu Languages: Contact-Induced vs. Language-Internal Lexical Change,” in Proceedings of the 6th World Congress of African Linguistics, eds. M. Brenzinger and A. Fehn (Cologne: Köppe Verlag, 2012).
58. Andrew Reid and Alinah Segobye, “Politics, Society and Trade on the Eastern Margins of the Kalahari,” in African Naissance: The Limpopo Valley 1000 Years Ago, eds. M. Leslie and T. Maggs (Cape Town: South African Archaeological Society, 2012), 64.
59. Denbow, Glass Beads.
60. Marilee Wood et al., “Glass Finds from Chibuene, a 6th to 17th Century Port in Southern Mozambique,” South African Archaeological Bulletin 67 (2012): 59–74; Denbow, Glass Beads; Dagget et al., “Glass Trade Beads at Thabadimasego, Botswana: Analytical Results and Some Implications,” (Johannesburg: Congress of the Pan-African Archaeological Society, forthcoming).
61. Denbow, Excavations at Bosutswe.
62. Karin Scott, Faunal Report on Kaitcha [sic]. Unpublished report in the author’s possession, 2013.
63. Denbow, Glass Beads.
64. Andrew Reid and Alinah Segobye, “An Ivory Cache from Botswana,” Antiquity 74 (2000): 326–331.
65. James Denbow, “Material Culture and the Dialectics of Identity in the Kalahari,” in Beyond Chiefdoms: Pathways to Complexity in Africa, ed. S. McIntosh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 110–123.
66. James Denbow, “Preliminary Report on an Archaeological Reconnaissance of the BP Soda Ash Lease, Makgadikgadi Pans, Botswana,” report on file at the National Museum of Botswana, 1985; Denbow, Glass Beads; Edwin Wilmsen and James Denbow, “The Middens at Tora Nju and Their Adjacent Stone Enclosure,” Journal of African Archaeology, forthcoming.
67. Taggart, Report on the Conditions; Hitchcock, Kalahari Cattleposts.
68. Ann Stahl, “Political Economic Mosaics: Archaeology of the Last Two Millennia in Tropical Sub-Saharan Africa,” Annual Review of Anthropology 33 (2004): 145–172; Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, “Animal Disease Challenges Fifteen Years Later: The Hypothesis in Light of New Data,” Quaternary International (2015); and Barberena et al. “Archaeological Discontinuities in the Southern Hemisphere: A Working Agenda,” Journal of Anthropological Archaeology (2016).
69. Denbow, Material Culture; James Denbow, “Stolen Places: Archaeology and the Politics of Identity in the Later Prehistory of the Kalahari,” in Africanizing Knowledge: African Studies across the Disciplines, eds. T. Falola and C. Jennings (Somerset, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 345–374.
70. Lawrence Barham and Peter Mitchell, The First Africans: African Archaeology from the Earliest Toolmakers to the Most Recent Foragers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
71. Peter Mitchell, The Archaeology of Southern Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); and Christopher Ehret, The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800, 2d ed. (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2016).
72. Roger Blench, Archaeology, Language, and the African Past (Lanham, MD: Altamira, 2006). See also Ehret, The Civilizations of Africa.
73. Sarah A. Tishkoff et al., “The Genetic Structure and History of Africas and African Americans,” Science 324.5930 (2009): 1035–1044.
