Contrasted life trajectories: reconstituting the main population exposomes in French Guiana (2024)

Table 1

Selected differences between French Guiana and mainland France.

Specific external exposures

Since the French first set foot in French Guiana, the burden of infectious diseases has been prominent in the public stereotype of French Guiana as a land of fevers, snakes, and spiders. As biodiversity has a latitudinal gradient, the biodiversity of human and animal pathogens is highest as one approaches the equator. The range of meaningful infectious pathogens is broad, with malaria, Amazonian toxoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, gastrointestinal nematodes, arboviroses, HIV, HTLV-1, HPV, HBV, Syphilis, Mycobacterium ulcerans, tuberculosis, leprosy, Q fever, leptospirosis, histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and more (8, 12–19). Apart from COVID-19, the infectious pathogen with the greatest burden of disease in the past 40 years has been HIV/AIDS, notably HIV-associated disseminated histoplasmosis, but mortality has considerably dropped (20). Infectious pathogens such as HPV (21), HTLV-1 (12), and H. pylori (22) have a substantial impact on infection-mediated cancers. Perhaps one of the major health consequences of infectious pathogens concerns pregnant women and their fetuses (14, 15, 18, 23–25).

Smoking is less frequent in French Guiana than in mainland France (12.2% vs. 29.7%, respectively) (9). For alcohol consumption, 35% of French Guianese report drinking weekly, including 5% of daily drinkers, levels that are well below those in mainland France (48% of weekly drinkers, including 10% of daily drinkers) (9). The major risk factors of tobacco and alcohol are thus markedly less prevalent in French Guiana than in mainland France.

For illegal drug use, experimentation of cannabis was lower in French Guiana than in mainland France (25% vs. 41%, respectively) and twice as often in men (34%) relative to women (17%) (9). Drug use during the last 12 months concerned 8% of the population in French Guiana and 11% in mainland France. For other illicit drugs, the levels of experimentation were also significantly lower in French Guiana: 2% for cocaine vs. 5% in mainland France, 1.8% for hallucinogenic mushrooms vs. 5% in mainland France, 1.3% for ecstasy or MDMA vs. 4% in mainland France, and less than 1% for poppers (vs. 7%), amphetamines (vs. 2%), and crack cocaine (vs. 2%) (9).

Apart from the above lifestyle factors, nutritional problems are particularly worrisome in French Guiana. Despite the lack of precise studies detailing food consumption in different populations (culture and socioeconomic level greatly shape diet), the nutritional transition from predominant undernourishment to predominance of overnourishment is not complete. While overweight and obesity are very frequent (26, 27), it has recently been emphasized that food insecurity and nutritional deficiencies are perhaps even more frequent (28, 29) and often associated with overweight/obese persons with micronutrient deficiencies. These nutritional problems largely overlap with social precariousness—which concerns over half of the population in French Guiana—and affect the vulnerable period of the first 1,000 days after conception (28). The consequences of what happens in this time frame extend far beyond, as studied in the research field of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) (30). Beyond the nutritional aspects, food is also associated with the serious hazards of heavy metals such as mercury and lead. Given the importance of illegal gold mining, mercury pollution and concentration by predatory fish is a significant problem with autochthonous populations who often rely on fishing (31–38). There again, the first 1,000 days after conception is a period of particular vulnerability, and some studies in French Guiana identified specific neurological and neuropsychological deficits in Amerindian children that were consistent with known targets of mercury neurotoxicity (34). More recently, the importance of exposure to lead has been revealed, with lead from hunting cartridges or Cassava and other tubers concentrating lead from the soil being suspected, but the sources of such widespread exposure are still being investigated (39, 40). Approximately 25% of pregnant women in western French Guiana displayed blood lead levels of ≥50 μg/L and 5% ≥100 μg/L. There again, the poorest were more at risk, and the highly vulnerable first 1,000 days of life were particularly exposed. Despite progress, safe drinkable water remains a problem in some socially disfavored parts of French Guiana (41).

In the context of widespread poverty, informal occupations are also associated with a broad range of risks: for gold miners, severe nutritional problems (42), mercury poisoning, infectious diseases, and external causes such as accidents or homicides. (19, 43–47); for sex workers or boatmen, a greater risk of HIV and Sexually transmitted infections (48–50).

General external exposures

Fifty-three percent of the population in French Guiana lives under the poverty level, and 29% live in great poverty (51). At the hospital, a cross-sectional study found that 75% of patients were socially precarious (52). Overall, in the 16–65 years group, 2 of every 5 individuals have severe difficulties with written language (53). There is a large overlap between precariousness and being foreign in French Guiana. Overall, 37% of the total population is of foreign nationality (and about half of adults), which is more than what has been reported anywhere else (54). By contrast, in mainland France, 7.6% of the population is foreign. Overall, between 15 and 18% of the population is undocumented in French Guiana vs. between 0.89 and 1.19% in mainland France (55). In 2015, births from foreign mothers were estimated to have outnumbered births from French mothers. Thus, 60% of babies were born from a foreign mother, and 40% were born from a foreign father, mainly Haitian. In 2017, Haitian mothers delivered a quarter of babies born in French Guiana. The overall number of newborns with only one French parent was increasing and, in 2017, represented 38% of births (56, 57). According to the French Office for the Protection of Refugees and Stateless Persons, 7,934 adult asylum seekers were registered in French Guiana between 2005 and 2014.

Historically, immigration has been a major driver of the social fabric of French Guiana. This sensitive topic commonly leads to the mistaken assumption that immigrants come to French Guiana for health reasons. However, studies refute this claim and suggest that only 1% of immigrants came to French Guiana for health reasons (58). Perhaps an exception concerns deliveries in western French Guiana, where women from Suriname cross over to deliver in the maternity ward of Saint Laurent du Maroni hospital. Although foreigners may sometimes suffer from discrimination (59, 60), they also benefit from extra efforts to correct social inequalities in health (52, 61, 62). However, because they do not know their rights or because complex administrative requirements discourage them from pursuing them, immigrants often do not apply for social benefits that they would be entitled to, thus contradicting common preconceptions. Thus, in 2015, 82% of “undocumented” people who had arrived for more than 3 months were not covered by the Aide Médicale Etat health insurance (health insurance for undocumented foreigners) despite being eligible for it (63). As a general rule of thumb, for infectious, chronic, obstetrical, or nutritional diseases, immigrants tend to have more advanced pathologies, which occur at younger ages (60, 64–69). However, for prolonged diseases, once immigrants benefit from health insurance, the differences between foreign and French or between precarious and non-precarious persons tend to disappear because the health system strives to compensate for their vulnerabilities by enhancing therapeutic education, health mediation and translation services, nurse visits at home (62), and an increased tendency to hospitalize patients living in difficult conditions (61). A complementary explanation is that, with time, immigrants develop social capital and expertise in the health system. Psychosocial stress and trauma linked to migration and poverty are widespread, notably among immigrants from countries that have undergone natural disasters and/or political violence and who have, at times, been preyed upon by human traffickers during their voyage toward French Guiana. Preliminary results from a World Health Organization study have shown that 45.2% of persons in French Guiana had experienced traumatic events vs. 30.2% in mainland France, and 7.8% experienced post-traumatic stress disorder in French Guiana vs. 0.7% in mainland France.

Finally, 20% of the population in French Guiana resides in the interior, in villages that are mostly only accessible by canoe or air, with only access to primary care (52). Regarding the access or use of the health system, there are complex differences between communities, which pertain to social conditions but also to cultural factors. Hence, despite the free availability of the COVID-19 vaccine, despite health promotion efforts, cultural mediation, translation, and outreach campaigns, French Guiana has the lowest vaccination rate in France and Latin America. This apparently is a major social fact that aligns with ethnic communities and illustrates the strong distrust and resentment toward the Western health system (70–72). It is not the only visible social fact on the yearly life statistics: In 2017, a prolonged social movement (all major roads were blocked for a month, and Cayenne Hospital was struck by a 74-day strike) demanding strong measures to fill the perceived structural gap between mainland France and French Guiana, notably for healthcare, was synchronous with the reascension of premature mortality (8). Although causal pathways can only be hypothesized, “self-destructive” peaks of social opposition hence seem to have sufficiently large effects to be visible on life statistics—i.e., a 3- to 4-year drop in life expectancy at birth in French Guiana vs. half a year in France. A simple yet plausible explanation is that, in a territory with a fragile health system and a large fragile population, hampering access to care to make a point is not such a good idea, broadcasting messages emphasizing the dangerousness of the health system and embarking the population on misguided solutions for health problems to make political points have dramatic consequences.

Internal exposures

With over half of the population affected in French Guiana, overweight and obesity are more frequent than in mainland France, notably among women, precarious persons, and those with low educational levels. Women were much more often affected by obesity than men: 23% vs. 13%, whereas in mainland France, the proportion of obese in the same national study found that 12% of men and 12% of women were obese, and another study found obesity prevalences of 15.8% for men and 15.6% for women (9, 11).

In 2014, physical activity was on par with that of mainland France in those aged less than 60 years. However, physical exercise was substantially lower than in mainland France in those aged over 60 years (32% vs. 18% of the 61–75 years group, respectively). Men exercised more than women in the population in general (44% vs. 28%, respectively) (9). A more recent estimate (2022–2021) found that, overall, the proportion of the population exercising at least 30 min per day was lower in French Guiana than in mainland France, both in men (29% vs. 36%, respectively) and in women (19% vs. 27%, respectively) (11).

In this context, the standardized prevalence of treated diabetes is greater than in mainland France: 7.7% compared with 4.6%. Despite the youthfulness of the population in French Guiana (median age 23 years), arterial hypertension is a major problem, notably among women (73). Thus, hypertension constitutes the major risk factor associated with strokes, myocardial infarction, and end-stage renal disease (65, 74, 75). Lipid abnormalities are common, but a recent study of Lpa among people with diabetes showed that Lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) concentrations, in contrast with mainland France, did not have the same prognostic value, suggesting that lipoprotein polymorphisms make it difficult to compare their prognostic values between populations with different ancestries (76).

Synthetic comparisons

Table 2 shows a simplified view of the main components of the exposomes of French Guiana and mainland France. Table 3 then compares the main components of the exposomes for the poorer half and richer half in French Guiana. Finally, Table 4 compares the main components of the exposomes between rural and urban French Guiana. Regarding nutritional deficiencies, the differences shown in Table 4 are complex: in the interior, the diversity is poorer than in urban areas, given supply difficulties; however, given the possibilities of fishing and cultivating, food insecurity tends to be lower, but the risk of heavy metals is far greater. In urban areas, the problem is not linked to the irregular supply of shops but to poverty.

Figure 1 shows a Fishbone graph representation of the main exposures at different stages of life (in utero, childhood, and early and late adulthood) in French Guiana. The figure shows that the first 1,000 days since conception are potentially at risk for a broad range of risks. The figure also shows (in orange) that the security of the food chain is at the origin of many deleterious health consequences. Boxes in bold emphasize the role of poverty at all stages of life. Early adulthood is considered to be adults of less than 46 years, and late adulthood is considered to be adults of ages >45 years.

Open in a separate window

Figure 1

Synthetic representation of the main exposures at different stages of life.

Statistical regularities and target populations

In public health, problems can be approached in three different ways: An approach focused on a specific problem (i.e., cancer, stroke, HIV, etc.), an approach focused on the determinants of health, and finally an approach focused on a specific population. Here, whether looking at internal, specific, or general external exposures, two main observations can be made: first, as far as we can infer the typical exposome in French Guiana, there are great differences with mainland France, which makes the interpretation of differences in life statistics difficult; second, it is apparent that social inequalities in French Guiana are so massive that the metrologic significance of life statistics, or standardized incidences of specific causes of death from death certificates, seems to be a crude averaging of very different worlds with very different exposomes. For example, we had observed among a cohort of women with breast cancer that in French Guiana, there was a 7% deficit in 5-year survival relative to mainland France. However, when stratifying by country of residence, there was no longer any difference for French citizens, whereas foreign-born women had a 24% deficit in survival at 5 years (77). Hence, given the great territorial contrasts, crude measures are often misleading. It is quite plausible to hypothesize that, in French Guiana, the non-precarious half of the population has a similar life expectancy to those living in mainland France. But with a median income in French Guiana only half that of France (920 Euros vs. 1837 Euros, respectively), and with food prices 34% greater in French Guiana, large differences in life statistics are expected. We used the INSEE’s tool to estimate life expectancy at birth stratified by income, and there was a 5.8-year difference for men and a 3.8-year difference for women between the 1,000 euro per month group and the 2000 euro per month group (78). Because 23% of persons in French Guiana live with less than 550 euros per month, estimations of the difference in life expectancy at birth were computed between those living with 500 euros per month vs. those living with 2000 euros per month. Hence, there was a 9.3-year difference for men and a 6.6-year difference for women. However, these approximations illustrating the impact of poverty may be interesting, but they use national tools calibrated using national probabilities of survival at different ages, which do not take into account the striking differences in the exposomes of French Guiana and mainland France. Another meaningful way to stratify the population could be to distinguish the rural populations in the interior from those in the coastal and mostly urban areas. We presently lack data from the most remote villages for robust comparisons. Aiming to get the “big picture,” we synthesized the available data and local expert knowledge. Although we assembled much expertise and data, we wish to acknowledge that each of our assumptions in Tables 2–4 can be criticized. Despite these limitations, the present study is the first to have such a holistic aim.

Perhaps the most striking fact this panorama shows is that being a fetus or a young child in French Guiana is fraught with multiple threats. The 2.6-fold increase in infant mortality relative to mainland France and the recent increase in causes of death from congenital anomalies or chromosomal causes may not be so surprising in this context. In French Guiana, poverty and poor pregnancy follow-up; renouncing to healthcare; wide variety of infectious diseases; very high prevalence of food insecurity, psychosocial stress, micronutrient deficiencies, and obesity and metabolic problems; and frequent exposure to lead and mercury in rural areas constitute a stunningly challenging environment for a new human being to develop into. Beyond an assemblage of causal explanations built on epidemiological observations, the present review attempts to integrate the available narrow epidemiologic data into a broader holistic view (79).

From concept to practical interventions to improve health

The national and international project on the first 1,000 days of life emphasizes the crucial importance of this period. The number of potentially harmful exposures faced by fetuses and young infants emphasizes that our first priority should be to actively endeavor to alleviate these risks through proactive measures toward improving follow-up of pregnant women and prevention of food insecurity and nutritional deficiencies, toxic exposures, infectious diseases, and psychosocial risks. In a nutshell, this requires a population-based approach targeting the most socially vulnerable pregnant women and projecting a variety of human resources toward those who need them the most. A second population, which includes the first population, is that of the socially precarious in general, whether they are urban immigrants or rural autochthonous populations. Given the accumulation of risk factors among the socially precarious, proactive actions seem crucial to reduce the incidence of the major causes of premature death. Although the conclusions of this attempt to reconstitute the major population exposomes could seem futile—we already know all that!—it pleads for integrated and more strategic approaches if one aims to improve human health for most who live in French Guiana. While the genome results from a long evolutionary history and is beyond the grasp of public health, reshaping the exposome is indeed the major field of public health efforts. In French Guiana, the multiethnic population entails genomes shaped by very different ancestral trajectories with differences in potential vulnerabilities (i.e., Amerindians for type 2 diabetes, obesity, or certain mental health issues; those with African ancestry for sickle cell anemia, obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, or prostate cancer). Although there is not much we can do about the genes themselves, the population exposome view offers a strategic view for public health action to alleviate the impact of exposures that lead to most of the burden of disease behind premature mortality. We emphasize that this view does not imply that the risk for different health outcomes can neatly be broken down by adding the attributable fractions of all genetic and environmental exposure risks, adding up to a total of 100%: they do not (80). While occasional cases of marasmus and kwashiorkor have disappeared in the past two decades, a striking fact is how a substantial part of the population’s health is affected by its sources of nutrition: often too many calories in relation to one’s activity, but also often not enough food and too few micronutrients, and even a risk of heavy metal poisoning. This affects the health system but has ramifications far beyond medical conditions; it also ramifies education (children with nutritional deficiencies or lead poisoning have learning difficulties), those dealing with road infrastructure, the police (road traffic accidents), the justice system (lead poisoning has been associated with crime levels), agriculture, and commerce, to name only a few. This diagnosis, in French territory, should elicit a strong coordinated response by all sectors of society that ensure a steady supply of safe quality food, with a particular focus on pregnant women and children. Finally, beyond the confines of French Guiana, on the Guiana Shield and in the Amazon, the exposome profiles are likely to share many features of what we have reconstructed here, and therefore, public health actors in the region would benefit from sharing knowledge and experiences in this complex context.

DOHaD, Developmental Origins of Health and Disease; HBV, Hepatitis B virus; HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus; HPV, Human Papilloma Virus; H. pylori, Helicobacter pylori; HTLV-1, Human T Lymphotropic Virus 1; Lpa, Lipoprotein a; MDMA, 3,4-Methyl enedioxy methamphetamine.

1. Warembourg C, Maitre L, Fossati S, Roumeliotaki T, Aasvang GM, Andrusaityte S, et al.. Early-life environmental exposures and blood pressure in children. J Am Coll Cardiol. (2019) 74:1317–28. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.06.069, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

2. Vineis P, Robinson O, Chadeau-Hyam M, Dehghan A, Mudway I, Dagnino S. What is new in the exposome?Environ Int. (2020) 143:105887. doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105887 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

3. Sbihi H, Boutin RC, Cutler C, Suen M, Finlay BB, Turvey SE. Thinking bigger: how early-life environmental exposures shape the gut microbiome and influence the development of asthma and allergic disease. Allergy. (2019) 74:2103–15. doi: 10.1111/all.13812, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

4. Miller GW, Jones DP. The nature of nurture: refining the definition of the exposome. Toxicol Sci. (2014) 137:1–2. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kft251, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

5. Wild CP. The exposome: from concept to utility. Int J Epidemiol. (2012) 41:24–32. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyr236 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

6. Pronk A, Loh M, Kuijpers E, Albin M, Selander J, Godderis L, et al.. Applying the exposome concept to working life health: the EU EPHOR project. Environ Epidemiol. (2022) 6:e185. doi: 10.1097/EE9.0000000000000185, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

7. Maitre L, Bustamante M, Hernández-Ferrer C, Thiel D, Lau C-HE, Siskos AP, et al.. Multi-omics signatures of the human early life exposome. Nat Commun. (2022) 13:7024. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-34422-2, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

8. Nacher M, Basurko C, Douine M, Lambert Y, Hcini N, Elenga N, et al.. The epidemiologic transition in French Guiana: secular trends and setbacks, and comparisons with continental France and south American countries. Trop Med Infect Dis. (2023) 8:219. doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed8040219, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

12. Abdelmoumen K, Alsibai KD, Rabier S, Nacher M, Wankpo N-B, Gessain A, et al.. Adult T-cell leukemia and lymphoma in French Guiana: a retrospective analysis with real-life data from 2009 to 2019. Lancet Reg Health Am. (2023) 21:100492. doi: 10.1016/j.lana.2023.100492, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

13. de Thoisy B, Duron O, Epelboin L, Musset L, Quénel P, Roche B, et al.. Ecology, evolution, and epidemiology of zoonotic and vector-borne infectious diseases in French Guiana: Transdisciplinarity does matter to tackle new emerging threats. Infect Genet Evol. (2021) 93:104916. doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104916, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

14. Basurko C, Carles G, Youssef M, Guindi WEL. Maternal and fetal consequences of dengue fever during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. (2009) 147:29–32. doi: 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2009.06.028, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

15. Basurko C, Matheus S, Hildéral H, Everhard S, Restrepo M, Cuadro-Alvarez E, et al.. Estimating the risk of vertical transmission of dengue: A prospective study. Am J Trop Med Hyg. (2018) 98:1826–32. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0794, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

16. Bonifay T, Douine M, Bonnefoy C, Hurpeau B, Nacher M, Djossou F, et al.. Poverty and arbovirus outbreaks: when chikungunya virus hits more precarious populations than dengue virus in French Guiana. Open forum. Infect Dis. (2017) 4:ofx 247. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofx247, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

17. Gaillet M, Pichard C, Restrepo J, Lavergne A, Perez L, et al.. Outbreak of Oropouche virus in French Guiana. Emerg Infect Dis. (2021) 27:2711–4. doi: 10.3201/eid2710.204760, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

18. Hanf M, Friedman E, Basurko C, Roger A, Bruncher P, Dussart P, et al.. Dengue epidemics and adverse obstetrical outcomes in French Guiana: a semi-ecological study. Tropical Med Int Health. (2014) 19:153–8. doi: 10.1111/tmi.12240, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

19. Douine M, Bonifay T, Lambert Y, Mutricy L, Galindo MS, Godin A, et al.. Zoonoses and gold mining: A cross-sectional study to assess yellow fever immunization, Q fever, leptospirosis and leishmaniasis among the population working on illegal mining camps in French Guiana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. (2022) 16:e0010326. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010326, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

20. Nacher M, Adenis A, Guarmit B, Lucarelli A, Blanchet D, Demar M, et al.. What is AIDS in the Amazon and the Guianas in the 90-90-90 era?PLoS One. (2020) 15:e0236368. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236368, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

21. Imounga LM, Plenet J, Belliardo S, Chine EC, Adenis A, Gaillet M, et al.. Incidence and mortality of cervical cancer in French Guiana: temporal and spatial trends. Public Health Pract. (2021) 2:100138. doi: 10.1016/j.puhip.2021.100138, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

22. Imounga LM, Plenet J, Belliardo S, Chine EC, Louvel D, Cenciu B, et al.. Gastric Cancer incidence and mortality in French Guiana: south American or French?J Gastrointest Cancer. (2022) 53:204–10. doi: 10.1007/s12029-020-00572-z [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

23. Lambert V, Enfissi A, Lefebvre M, Pomar L, Kedous S, Guimiot F, et al.. Tonate virus and fetal abnormalities, French Guiana, 2019. Emerg Infect Dis. (2022) 28:445–8. doi: 10.3201/eid2802.210884, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

24. Pomar L, Malinger G, Benoist G, Carles G, Ville Y, Rousset D, et al.. Association between Zika virus and fetopathy: a prospective cohort study in French Guiana. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. (2017) 49:729–36. doi: 10.1002/uog.17404, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

25. Pomar L, Lambert V, Matheus S, Pomar C, Hcini N, Carles G, et al.. Prolonged maternal Zika viremia as a marker of adverse perinatal outcomes. Emerg Infect Dis. (2021) 27:490–8. doi: 10.3201/eid2702.200684, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

26. Massicard M, Drak Alsibai K, Nacher M, Sabbah N. Nutritional and socioeconomic determinants of overweight and obesity in the French Amazon: the health barometer study. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). (2022) 13:849718. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.849718, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

28. Duclau A, Abad F, Adenis A, Sabbah N, Leneuve M, Nacher M. Prevalence and risk factors for micronutrient deficiencies during pregnancy in Cayenne, French Guiana. Food. Nutr Res. (2021) 65. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v65.5268, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

29. Basurko C, Dupart O, Savy M, Obert-Marby C, Mvogo A, Gonzalez A, et al.. Hunger in French Guiana’s vulnerable urban neighborhoods: A neglected consequence of COVID-19. Food Nutr Bull. (2023) 44:3–11. doi: 10.1177/03795721231156641, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

30. Penkler M, Hanson M, Biesma R, Müller R. DOHaD in science and society: emergent opportunities and novel responsibilities. J Dev Orig Health Dis. (2019) 10:268–73. doi: 10.1017/S2040174418000892, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

31. Amouroux D, Wasserman JC, Tessier E, Donard OF . Elemental mercury in the atmosphere of a tropical Amazonian forest (French Guiana). Environ Sci Technol. (1999) 33:3044–8. doi: 10.1021/es990119b [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

32. Boudou A, Maury Brachet R, Durrieu G, Coquery M, Dauta C. Gold mining acivities and mercury contamination of freshwater systems in French Guiana. Risks Toward Hum Popul. Hydroécologie Appliquée, (2006) 15:1–18. doi: 10.1051/hydro:2006007 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

33. Coquer M, Cossa D, Azemard S, Peretyazhko T, Charlet L. Methylmercury formation in the anoxic waters of the petit-Saut reservoir (French Guiana) and its spreading in the adjacent Sinnamary river. J Phys EDP Sci. (2003) 107:327–31. doi: 10.1051/jp4:20030308 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

34. Cordier S, Garel M, Mandereau L, Morcel H, Doineau P, et al.. Neurodevelopmental investigations among methylmercury-exposed children in French Guiana. Environ Res. (2002) 89:1–11. doi: 10.1006/enrs.2002.4349, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

35. Cordier S, Grasmick C, Paquier-Passelaigue M, Mandereau L, Weber J-P, Jouan M. Mercury exposure in French Guiana: levels and determinants. Arch Environ Health Int J. (1998) 53:299–03. doi: 10.1080/00039899809605712, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

36. Fréry N, Maury-Brachet R, Maillot E, Deheeger M, De Mérona B, Boudou A. Gold-mining activities and mercury contamination of native amerindian communities in French Guiana: key role of fish in dietary uptake. Environ Health Perspect. (2001) 109:449–56. doi: 10.1289/ehp.01109449, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

37. Fujimura M, Matsuyama A, Harvard J-P, Bourdineaud J-P, Nakamura K. Mercury contamination in humans in upper Maroni, French Guiana between 2004 and 2009. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. (2012) 88:135–9. doi: 10.1007/s00128-011-0497-3, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

38. Guedron S, Grangeon S, Lanson B, Grimaldi M. Mercury speciation in a tropical soil association; consequence of gold mining on hg distribution in French Guiana. Geoderma. (2009) 153:331–46. doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.08.017 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

39. Rimbaud D, Restrepo M, Louison A, Boukhari R, Ardillon V, Carles G, et al.. Blood lead levels and risk factors for lead exposure among pregnant women in western French Guiana: the role of manioc consumption. J Toxicol Environ Health A. (2017) 80:382–93. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1331490 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

40. Maurice L, Barraza F, Blondet I, Ho-A-Chuck M, Tablon J, Brousse P, et al.. Childhood lead exposure of Amerindian communities in French Guiana: an isotopic approach to tracing sources. Environ Geochem Health. (2021) 43:4741–57. doi: 10.1007/s10653-021-00944-9, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

41. Mansotte F, Rey O, Maison D, Cesa V, Gastel BV. Public taps to supply water in insalubrious residential areas in French Guiana. Environ Risques Santé. (2012) 11:305–10. doi: 10.1684/ers.2012.0547 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

42. Mosnier E, Niemetzky F, Stroot J, de Santi VP, Brousse P, Guarmit B, et al.. A large outbreak of thiamine deficiency among illegal gold miners in French Guiana. Am J Trop Med Hyg. (2017) 96:1248–52. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0906, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

43. Douine M, Mosnier E, Le Hingrat Q, Charpentier C, Corlin F, Hureau L, et al.. Illegal gold miners in French Guiana: a neglected population with poor health. BMC Public Health. (2017) 18:23. doi: 10.1186/s12889-017-4557-4, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

44. Mutricy-Hureau L, Pisoni A, Suarez-Mutis M, Figueira da Silva A, Lambert Y, Mespoulhe P, et al.. Sexual and addictive risk behaviors and sexually transmitted infections in illegal gold miners in French Guiana: A multicenter observational study. PLoS One. (2022) 17:e0272932. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0272932, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

45. Pisoni A, Reynaud E, Douine M, Hureau L, Alcocer Cordellat C, Schaub R, et al.. Automated and combined HIV, HBV, HCV, and syphilis testing among illegal gold miners in French Guiana using a standardized dried blood device. Acta Trop. (2023) 238:106731. doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106731, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

46. Douine M, Musset L, Corlin F, Pelleau S, Pasquier J, Mutricy L, et al.. Prevalence of plasmodium spp. in illegal gold miners in French Guiana in 2015: a hidden but critical malaria reservoir. Malar J. (2016) 15:315. doi: 10.1186/s12936-016-1367-6, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

47. Douine M, Schaub R, Jardin H, Adenis A, Nacher M, Hureau-Mutricy L, et al.. High prevalence of hepatitis B and syphilis in illegal gold miners in French Guiana. Clin Microbiol Infect. (2019) 25:1051–3. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2019.04.023 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

48. Gaubert-Marechal E, Jolivet A, Van-Melle A, Parriault M-C, Basurko C, Adenis A, et al.. Knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and practices on HIV/AIDS among boatmen on the Maroni River: a neglected bridging group?J AIDS Clin Res. (2012) 3:1–3. doi: 10.4172/2155-6113.1000181 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

49. Parriault M-C, Basurko C, Melle AV, Gaubert-Maréchal E, Rogier S, Couppié P, et al.. Predictive factors of unprotected sex for female sex workers: first study in French Guiana, the French territory with the highest HIV prevalence. Int J STD AIDS. (2015) 26:542–8. doi: 10.1177/0956462414545794, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

50. Parriault M-C, van Melle A, Basurko C, Gaubert-Marechal E, Macena RHM, Rogier S, et al.. HIV-testing among female sex workers on the border between Brazil and French Guiana: the need for targeted interventions. Cad Saude Publica. (2015) 31:1615–22. doi: 10.1590/0102-311X00138514, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

51. Jeanne-Rose M, Creignou A. 29% des Guyanais en situation de grande pauvreté en 2018 - Insee Analyses Guyane - 59. (2022) Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/6468775 (Accessed January 6, 2023).

52. Nacher M, Deungoue S, Brousse P, Adenis A, Couppié P, Sobesky M. The interplay between isolation and precariousness, and hospitalization duration in French Guiana. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique. (2020) 68:125–32. doi: 10.1016/j.respe.2019.09.012, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

53. Enquête Information et Vie Quotidienne: Lire, écrire, compter: des savoirs fragiles en Guyane - Premiers Résultats | Insee. (2013). Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/1291999 (Accessed May 5, 2023).

55. Piantoni F. Trente ans d’immigration en Guyane. Un processus d’intégration sociale et économique sous contrainte. Après-demain. (2016) 39:27–31. doi: 10.3917/apdem.039.0027 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

56. Insee Flash Guyane Synthèse démographique de la Guyane - Une démographie toujours dynamique - Insee Flash Guyane - 57. (2017). Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2559184 (Accessed January 6, 2023).

57. Insee . La Guyane, une région jeune et cosmopolite - Insee Analyses Guyane - 35. (2019). Available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/3695893 (Accessed November 18, 2022).

58. Jolivet A, Florence S, Lebas J, Chauvin P. Migration, health, and care in French overseas territories. Lancet. (2010) 376:1827–8. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)62169-1, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

59. Carde E. Les discriminations selon l’origine dans l’accès aux soins. Sante Publique. (2007) 19:99–09. doi: 10.3917/spub.072.0099 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

60. Valmy L, Gontier B, Parriault MC, Van Melle A, Pavlovsky T, Basurko C, et al.. Prevalence and predictive factors for renouncing medical care in poor populations of Cayenne, French Guiana. Health Serv Res. (2016) 16:1–11. doi: 10.1186/s12913-016-1284-y, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

61. Jolivet A, Cadot E, Angénieux O, Florence S, Lesieur S, Lebas J, et al.. Use of an emergency department in Saint-Laurent du Maroni, French guiana: does being undocumented make a difference?J Immigr Minor Health. (2014) 16:586–94. doi: 10.1007/s10903-013-9919-0, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

62. Linière S, Nacher M, Drak Alsibai K, Mergeayfabre M, Hafsi N, Charpin A, et al.. Precariousness, diabetes control and complications in French Guiana. Front Endocrinol. (2022) 13:156. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.937156, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

64. Rochemont DR, Lemenager P, Franck Y, Farhasmane A, Sabbah N, Nacher M. The epidemiology of acute coronary syndromes in French Guiana. Ann Cardiol Angéiol. (2021) 70:7–12. doi: 10.1016/j.ancard.2020.09.032 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

65. Rochemont DR, Mimeau E, Misslin C, Papaix-Puech M, De Toffol B, Sabbah N, et al.. A prospective comparative study of health inequalities and the epidemiology of stroke in French Guiana and Dijon, France. Front Public Health. (2022) 10:9036. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.849036, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

66. Rochemont DR, Dueymes JM, Roura R, Meddeb M, Couchoud C, Nacher M. End stage renal disease as a symptom of health inequalities in French Guiana. J Health Inequal. (2018) 4:31–5. doi: 10.5114/jhi.2018.77646 [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

67. Nacher M, Adenis A, Huber F, Hallet E, Abboud P, Mosnier E, et al.. Estimation of the duration between HIV seroconversion and HIV diagnosis in different population groups in French Guiana: strategic information to reduce the proportion of undiagnosed infections. PLoS One. (2018) 13:e0199267. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199267, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

68. Leneuve-Dorilas M, Favre A, Carles G, Louis A, Nacher M. Risk factors for premature birth in French Guiana: the importance of reducing health inequalities. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. (2019) 32:1388–96. doi: 10.1080/14767058.2017.1403578, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

69. Van Melle A, Cropet C, Parriault M-C, Adriouch L, Lamaison H, Sasson F, et al.. Renouncing care in French Guiana: the national health barometer survey. BMC Health Serv Res. (2019) 19:99–11. doi: 10.1186/s12913-019-3895-6, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

70. Nacher M, Vignier N, Rousseau C, Adenis A, Douine M, Basurko C, et al.. The burden of COVID-19 in French Guiana: vaccine-averted deaths, hospitalizations and costs. Vaccine: X. (2023) 13:100271. doi: 10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100271, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

71. Vignier N, Brureau K, Granier S, Breton J, Michaud C, Gaillet M, et al.. Attitudes towards the COVID-19 vaccine and willingness to get vaccinated among healthcare workers in French Guiana: the influence of geographical origin. Vaccine. (2021) 9:682. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9060682, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

72. Douine M, Granier S, Brureau K, Breton J, Michaud C, Gaillet M, et al.. Levers and barriers to vaccinate against COVID-19 in the multicultural context of French Guiana: A qualitative cross-sectional survey among health care workers. Vaccine. (2021) 9:1216. doi: 10.3390/vaccines9111216, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

73. Atallah A, Atallah V, Daigre J-L, Boissin J-L, Kangambega P, Larifla L, et al.. Hypertension artérielle et obésité: disparités entre quatre régions d’Outre-mer In: Annales de Cardiologie et d’Angéiologie: Elsevier; (2014). 63:155–62. doi: 10.1016/j.ancard.2014.05.008 [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

74. Rochemont DR, Mimeau E, Misslin-Tritsch C, Papaix-Puech M, Delmas E, Bejot Y, et al.. The epidemiology and management of stroke in French Guiana. BMC Neurol. (2020) 20:109. doi: 10.1186/s12883-020-01650-2, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

75. Rochemont DR, Meddeb M, Roura R, Couchoud C, Nacher M, Basurko C. End stage renal disease in French Guiana (data from R.E.I.N registry): south American or French?BMC Nephrol. (2017) 18:207. doi: 10.1186/s12882-017-0614-6, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

76. Dordonne S, Mergeayfabre M, Hafsi N, Ntoutoum A, Salazar-Cardozo C, Casse O, et al.. Impact of lipoprotein (a) on macrovascular complications of diabetes in a multiethnic population in the French Amazon. J Diabetes Res. (2023) 2023:8111521. doi: 10.1155/2023/8111521, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

77. Roué T, Labbé S, Belliardo S, Plenet J, Douine M, Nacher M. Predictive factors of the survival of women with invasive breast Cancer in French Guiana: the burden of health inequalities. Clin Breast Cancer. (2016) 16:e113–8. doi: 10.1016/j.clbc.2016.02.017, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

79. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider?Soc Sci Med. (1994) 39:887–03. doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(94)90202-X, PMID: [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]

80. Krieger N. Health equity and the fallacy of treating causes of population health as if they sum to 100%. Am J Public Health. (2017) 107:541–9. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2017.303655, PMID: [PMC free article] [PubMed] [CrossRef] [Google Scholar]