The balance sheet
A balance sheet describes the resources that are under a company’s control on a specified date and indicates where these resources have come from. As an overview of the company’s financial position, the balance sheet consists of three major sections: (1) the assets, which are probable future economic benefits owned or controlled by the entity; (2) the liabilities, which are probable future sacrifices of economic benefits; and (3) the owners’ equity, calculated as the residual interest in the assets of an entity after deducting liabilities.
The list of assets shows the forms in which the company’s resources are lodged; the list of liabilities and the owners’ equity indicate where these same resources have come from. The balance sheet, in other words, shows the company’s resources from two points of view—asset and liability—and the following relationship must be maintained: total assets are equal to total liabilities plus total owners’ equity.
This same identity is also expressed in another way: total assets minus total liabilities equals total owners’ equity. In this form, the equation emphasizes that the owners’ equity in the company is always equal to the net assets (assets minus liabilities). Any increase in one will inevitably be accompanied by an increase in the other, and the only way to increase the owners’ equity is to increase the net assets. This is known as the fundamental accounting equation.
Assets are ordinarily subdivided into current assets and noncurrent assets. The former include cash, amounts receivable from customers, inventories, and other assets that are expected to be consumed or can be readily converted into cash during the next operating cycle (production, sale, and collection). Noncurrent assets may include noncurrent receivables, fixed assets (such as land and buildings), intangible assets (such as intellectual property), and long-term investments.
The liabilities are similarly divided into current liabilities and noncurrent liabilities. Most amounts payable to the company’s suppliers (accounts payable), to employees (wages payable), or to governments (taxes payable) are included among the current liabilities. Noncurrent liabilities consist mainly of amounts payable to holders of the company’s long-term bonds and such items as obligations to employees under company pension plans. The difference between total current assets and total current liabilities is known as net current assets, or working capital.
In the United States, for example, the owners’ equity is divided between paid-in capital and retained earnings. Paid-in capital represents the amounts paid to the corporation in exchange for shares of the company’s preferred and common stock. The major part of this, the capital paid in by the common shareholders, is usually divided into two parts, one representing the par value, or stated value, of the shares, the other representing the excess over this amount. The amount of retained earnings is the difference between the amounts earned by the company in the past and the dividends that have been distributed to the owners.
A slightly different breakdown of the owners’ equity is used in most of continental Europe and in other parts of the world. The classification distinguishes between those amounts that cannot be distributed except as part of a formal liquidation of all or part of the company (capital and legal reserves) and those amounts that are not restricted in this way (free reserves and undistributed profits).
A simple balance sheet is shown in Table 1. Because the two sides of this balance sheet represent two different aspects of the same entity, the totals must always be identical. Thus, a change in the amount for one item must always be accompanied by an equal change in some other item. For example, if the company pays $40 to one of its trade creditors, the cash balance will go down by $40, and the balance in accounts payable will go down by the same amount.
| Table 1: Any Company, Inc.: Balance sheet as of December 31, 20__ | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| assets | |||
| current assets | cash | $100 | |
| marketable securities | 50 | ||
| accounts receivable | 150 | ||
| inventories | 180 | ||
| total current assets | $480 | ||
| long-term investments | 70 | ||
| plant and equipment | original cost | $300 | |
| less: accumulated depreciation | (110) | 190 | |
| total assets | $740 | ||
| liabilities and owners' equity | |||
| current liabilities | wages payable | $20 | |
| accounts payable | 160 | ||
| total current liabilities | $180 | ||
| deferred taxes | 10 | ||
| long-term bonds payable | 70 | ||
| total liabilities | $260 | ||
| owners' equity | common stock | $100 | |
| additional paid-in capital | 150 | ||
| retained earnings | 230 | ||
| total owners' equity | 480 | ||
| total liabilities and owners' equity | $740 | ||
The income statement
The company uses its assets to produce goods and services. Its success depends on whether it is wise or lucky in the assets it chooses to hold and in the ways it uses these assets to produce goods and services.
The company’s success is measured by the amount of profit it earns—that is, the growth or decline in its stock of assets from all sources other than contributions or withdrawals of funds by owners and creditors. Net income is the accountant’s term for the amount of profit that is reported for a particular time period.
The company’s income statement for a period of time shows how the net income for that period was derived. For example, the first line in Table 2 shows the company’s net sales revenues for the period: the assets obtained from customers in exchange for the goods and services that constitute the company’s stock-in-trade. The second line summarizes the company’s revenues from other sources.
| Table 2: Any Company, Inc.: Income statement for the year ended December 31, 20__ | ||
|---|---|---|
| net sales revenues | $800 | |
| interest and other revenues | 14 | |
| total revenues | $814 | |
| expenses | ||
| cost of merchandise sold | $492 | |
| salaries of employees | 116 | |
| depreciation | 30 | |
| interest expense | 4 | |
| other expenses | 78 | |
| provision for taxes on ordinary income | 47 | |
| total expenses | 767 | |
| operating income | $47 | |
| gain on sale of investment (less applicable taxes) | 5 | |
| net income | $52 | |
The income statement next shows the expenses of the period: the assets that were consumed while the revenues were being created. The expenses are usually broken down into several categories indicating what the assets were used for. In Table 2, six expense items are distinguished, starting with the cost of the merchandise that was sold during the period and continuing down through the provision for income taxes.
The bottom portion of the income statement reports the effects of events that are outside the usual flow of activities. In this case it shows the result of the company’s sale of some of its long-term investments for more than their original purchase price. Because this was not part of the company’s normal operations, the sale price, costs, and taxes on the sale were kept separate from the operating revenue and expense totals; the income statement shows only a single number, the net gain on the sale.
Net income summarizes all the gains and losses recognized during the period, including both the results of the company’s normal, day-to-day activities and any other events. If net income is negative, it is referred to as a net loss.
The income statement is usually accompanied by a statement that shows how the company’s retained earnings have changed during the year. Net income increases retained earnings; net operating loss or the distribution of cash dividends reduces them. Any Company, Inc., started the year with retained earnings of $213 and added $52 in net income during the year (Table 2). Dividends amounting to $35 were distributed to shareholders during the year, leaving a year-end balance of $230. This is the amount on the year-end balance sheet (Table 1).
